Volume 11 - Issue 57
/ September 2022
111
https://www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.57.08.12
How to Cite:
Spasova, L. (2022). Effects of gender reactions to stereotype advertisements – Case study in Bulgaria. Amazonia Investiga, 11(57),
111-120. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.57.08.12
Effects of gender reactions to stereotype advertisements – Case study
in Bulgaria
Ефекти на полови реакции към стереотипни реклами – изследователски случай в
България
Received: October 10, 2022 Accepted: November 5, 2022
Written by:
Lyubomira Spasova38
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1438-9104
Abstract
This investigation has two aims: to establish the
presence of stereotypes in advertisements offered
in Bulgaria and to identify which stereotypes
achieve positive and negative effects on
consumers of both genders. Taking into account
Eisend's theoretical formulation of gender roles
in advertising (2019), as well as research on the
cross-gender effects of stereotypes in advertising
according to the most recent studies of Akestam
et al. (2021), the author examines the influence
achieved through three of the components – trait
descriptors, physical characteristics and role
behaviors. The results of the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) show that according to trait
descriptors for women, as well as role behavior
for men, the highest influence was achieved in
the investigated advertisements. When
measuring cross-gender influences, no
statistically significant differences were found
between men and women in the influence of
advertising containing images of the same
gender. Conducted Student-Fischer’s T-tests
evidenced influence achieved for advertisements
with male and female images, as well as with
female product images. This study can serve
organizations offering products and services in
Bulgaria, and its originality is expressed in the
mixed consumer reactions found.
Keywords: advertising stereotypes, cross-
gender reactions, reactance to advertising.
38
Senior Lecturer PhD at Faculty of Economics, department of Social Sciences and Business Language Training, Trakia University,
Bulgaria.
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Introduction
Although advertising researchers have conducted
a number of studies on the gender role of
stereotypes, there are many ambiguities such as:
what are the main stereotypes of both genders;
which stereotypes are falling away and which are
confirmed; as well as what is expressed in the
high evaluation of stereotypes in advertising by
consumers. According to Desvaux, Devillard-
Hoellinger and Baumgarten, if precise reasons
for these features are not formed, the
phenomenon of "stereotype in advertising" will
continue to exist and be studied (Desvaux,
Devillard-Hoellinger and Baumgarten, 2007,
p. 44). All this necessitates a content analysis
regarding the influence of stereotypes, as well as
establishing the achieved positive and negative
impact on both genders. The portrayal of male
and female figures in advertising, the following
of certain stereotypes, as well as the imposition
of certain norms of behavior for the genders,
cause different reactions of consumers for the
two genders. The traditionally repeated
stereotypical image has one advantage – it makes
consumers' thinking more lazy, because
"stereotypes are created by the continual,
extended exposure of consumers to patterns of
imagery" (Paek, Nelson & Vilela, 2011, p.197).
Advertisers portray men and women differently
in advertisements, but these different images lead
to intended and unintended effects (Baeza,
2011). Internationally, advertising conforms to
traditional gender images (Paek, Nelson &
Vilela, 2011, p.193), that is, not mixing of the
genders, demonstrations with same-sex couples
and marriages were observed. Even if one media
can afford an advertisement with a gay couple,
the trend does not continue in other issues of the
media, which has the mechanisms to confirm
stereotypical behavior (Phillips & McQuarrie,
2011). Therefore, advertisers are hesitant to what
extent they can use stereotypical images to
achieve influence. Paek, Nelson and Vilela state
that "men are represented in prominent visual
and auditory roles, while women are portrayed in
stereotypical ways" (Paek, Nelson and Vilela,
2011, p.192). Offering new current research on
the stereotypical presence of women and men in
advertisements, it is expected to shift the
perspectives of both users and researchers
(Eisend, 2019; Akestam, Rosengren, Dahlen,
Liljedal & Berg, 2021), and according to the
researcher of the present work, to cause different
psychological reactance (Brehm, 1966;
Thorbjørnsen & Dahlén, 2011) in the users.
Therefore, the different images, the implied
images of the two genders, as well as their
combined presentation with different products
and services, can determine some of the final
results in the supply and demand of the
advertised goods.
The present article, which aims to explore cross-
gender responses to stereotypical advertising
influence as part of consumer reactance, is
organized as follows: the first section reviews
previous literature on stereotype terminology and
understanding. In accordance with this review,
the hypothesis regarding the influence of gender
on stereotypical advertising is formed. It then
describes the methodology used in the study and
its main findings on stereotypical influence
measured by gender. Finally, a discussion of the
obtained results and a summary of the
conclusions of the study are made.
Theoretical Framework
In order to outline the social effects on
consumers and society, researchers find that the
relationship between gender roles (Eisend, 2019;
Hatzithomas, Boutsouki & Ziamou, 2016),
stereotypes in advertisements (Taylor & Stern,
1997; Knoll, Eisend & Steinhagen, 2011) should
be explored, but also the role of brand and media-
related social effects (Eisend, 2019; Wolin &
Korgaonkar, 2003). According to the new
advertising trends, the effect of gender
stereotypes is studied, that is, these are binary
definitions of gender according to which study
the effect of gender stereotypes on consumers of
the same (binary) gender (Eisend, 2019, p.78).
Difficulties in research come from the fact that
the concept of gender becomes more nuanced in
different advertisements and societies.
In other longitudinal studies, negative cross-
gender effects of stereotypes in advertising are
sought (Akestam, Rosengren, Dahlen, Liljedal &
Berg, 2021), as well as the specific negative
reactions of both genders to the studied
stereotypes. This is why stereotyping in
advertisements has been the subject of scrutiny
by many academic fields (Akestam Rosengren,
Dahlen, Liljedal & Berg, 2021). This includes
gender studies (Morrison & Shaffer, 2003;
Lorenzen, Grieve & Thomas, 2004; White &
White, 2006; Ricciardelli, Clow & White, 2010),
studies in psychology (Halliwell & Dittmar,
2004; Zawisza & Cinnirella, 2010; Meyers-Levy
& Loken, 2015), as well as marketing and
advertising research (Antioco, Smeesters & Le
Boedec, 2012; Huhmann & Limbu, 2016; Gentry
& Harrison, 2010; Zayer, McGrath & Castro-
Gonz´alez, 2020).
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According to researchers such as Akestam,
Rosengren, Dahlen, Liljedal and Berg (2021),
such studies "suffer from common terminology"
or use the terminological framework of other
studies such as: personality traits (Lee & Ashton,
2004; Markey & Markey, 2009; Johnson, 2014),
the concepts of idealization (Richins, 1991),
body size (Bian & Wang, 2015), the concept of
attractiveness (Bower, 2001), which shift the
perspective from gender portrayals in media and
advertisements to consumer attitudes and
behaviors.
In order to form a terminological framework of
research, the concepts of "stereotype" and how it
is present in advertising must be determined.
Stereotypes facilitate the perception of
advertising (Macrae, Milne & Bodenhausen,
1994), allowing the perceiver to rely on
previously stored knowledge rather than new
information. According to Taylor and Stern
(1997), stereotype is related to cultural context,
the most widely applied cultural model in
advertising research being Hofstede's (2001)
cultural dimensions. The understanding of a
stereotype also includes "a widely accepted
belief about the personal qualities of members of
a social category, such as gender, ethnicity, or
sexual orientation" (Akestam, 2017, p.16). Other
difficulties in stereotype research arise from their
dynamics, because stereotypes have the ability to
change over time (Eisend, 2010), and also
different stereotypical advertising images can
reinforce the role of public stereotypes (Eisend,
Plagemann & Sollwedel, 2014). In addition,
Knoll, Eisend and Steinhagen emphasize the
social role of stereotype as "a set of concepts
relating to social category" (Knoll, Eisend and
Steinhagen, 2011, p.869). At the heart of the
stereotypical division of the genders is Ashmore
and Del Boca's (1981) claim that certain
characteristics distinguish men from women.
As a result of logical and substantive summary,
the following research questions can be
identified, which are the subject of consideration
by the researchers (Table 1).
Table 1.
Research questions of stereotypical influence
Research questions
Stereotypical influence / Authors, Year
1. How are gender
stereotypes perceived from
advertising and how does this
affect information
processing?
Gender stereotypes function as a type of heuristic. Stereotypes in
advertising facilitate perception because they require less cognitive
processing effort (Pratto & Bargh, 1991).
2. What are the negative
effects of exposure to gender
stereotypes?
Anxiety of women and girls as stereotypical images of women tend to
portray weak women (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). Stereotypical images of men have similar negative effects on men's
body satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-esteem because they portray
athletic and muscular men (Lorenzen, Grieve, Thomas, 2004).
3. Is gender stereotyped in
advertising and does the
degree of stereotyping
decrease or increase over
time?
In the stereotyping of gender in advertising are offered attributes
that differentiate males and females (Ashmore & Del Boca, 1981).
These attributes may be trait descriptors, physical characteristics,
role behaviours or occupational statuses (Deaux & Lewis, 1984).
4. Are depictions of gender
roles deviating from equality
and what is happening to
gender roles?
The portrayal of gender roles deviates from equality because there are
different standards of equality for men and women. (Eisend 2010;
Knoll, Eisend & Steinhagen, 2011). Changes related to gender values
are observed (Eisend, 2010; Matthes, Prieler & Adam, 2016).
5. What are the social effects
of gender stereotypes in
advertising?
Gender stereotyping through advertising reduces women's
professional performance, achievement aspirations, and positive self-
perception and thus challenges the provision of equal opportunities
for both sexes in society (Davis, 2002). The changing role of men
from strong masculinity to femininity, as well as the reverse change
for women, leads to a mixing of gender roles. Negative social effects
for the sexes have been reported due to the adoption of different roles
as well as the mixing of gender functions (Maher & Childs, 2003).
Source: own elaboration.
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According to Deaux and Lewis (1984), as well as
Eisend (2019), gender stereotypes have four
distinct components that are distinguishable at
their core: trait descriptors (e.g., assertiveness,
concern for others), physical characteristics
(e.g., hair length, body height), role behaviors
(e.g., leader, childcare), and occupational status
(e.g., truck driver, elementary school teacher,
homemaker) (Deaux & Lewis 1984; Eisend,
2019, p.73). Current research focuses on trait
descriptors, physical characteristics, and role
behaviors, delineating several problem areas that
need to be clarified. It is assumed that women
will have more pronounced negative reactions to
the presentation of stereotypical images of
women, derived from the mass advertisements on
the Internet, offered to consumers in Bulgaria for
evaluation. The assumption is possible because
in the research circles the opinion is formed that
the woman in advertisements is more often
placed in a subordinate role, and when she shows
power through a career, she copies the behavior
of the man. In an analysis of media influence, it
is found that this is due to the presentation of
stereotypical images, which lead to higher levels
of perceived negative influence on other users -
men and women, which determines the reactance
of users to advertising. (Akestam, Rosengren,
Dahlen, Liljidal & Berg, 2021, p. 67). On the
other hand, men, as a less sensitive media
audience (Spasova & Taneva, 2021), are shaped
as consumers with less pronounced levels of
negative affect from internet advertisements
presenting stereotypical images of men in the
same companies' advertisings. The main
theoretical explanations for men's and women's
negative advertising response to stereotypical
versus non-stereotypical presence in
advertisements are related to theory of
psychological reactance (Brehm 1966;
Thorbjørnsen & Dahlén, 2011), which posits that
people are predisposed to maintain and restore
their personal freedom when it is threatened. A
similar threat is observed in both genders as a
reactance against a stereotypical advertising
image that limits consumers. In addition, the
research should track respondents' identification
with one or the other gender in relation to their
final reaction to stereotypical images of women
or men. The research community lacks additional
meta-analyses showing aggregated information
on the importance of both genders (Eagly, 2009;
Shield, 2016) in the perception of stereotypical
images in advertising. Wolin (2003) found that
advertisements have become less stereotypical in
recent years, and selectivity hypotheses suggest
that women process advertisements differently
compared to men (Spasova & Taneva, 2021).
This statement is consistent with recent research
showing that consumers, regardless of their
gender, respond more positively to non-
stereotypical gender representation in advertising
(Baxter, Kulczynski & Illicic, 2016; Liljedal,
Berg & Dahlen, 2020).
The parameters of the stereotypical
representation of images of men and women in
advertisements that are investigated in the
present paper need to be delineated. The
researcher makes a completely targeted selection
of mass advertisements on certain social
platforms – Facebook and Instagram, depicting
images of men and women with saturated
sexuality, attractiveness, good muscles, strongly
associated with products intended only for men
or only for women. Several stereotypical
variables were selected to analyse the content of
advertisements in the indicated social platforms:
trait descriptors - attachment to the other gender,
closeness, intimacy in stereotypical bisexual
advertising; protection over the neighbour in
stereotypical bisexual advertising; commitment
and fidelity in stereotypical bisexual advertising;
physical characteristics - length and position of
the woman's hair in a mass advertisement for an
Internet service; musculature and physical
attractiveness of the man and the woman in a
perfume advertising; sexiness of body position in
perfume advertisements of famous brands; role
behaviours – couple roles in stereotypical
bisexual media advertising; a loving couple in an
advertisement for famous brand perfumes. The
variables mentioned above are compared, and
advertisements in which only one of the genders
is present are also offered in a completely
targeted manner. The main criteria by which
advertisings are measured is the presence of one
or both genders, establishing the degree of
impact on users who identify themselves as one
or the other gender.
According to these previous researches, the
researcher puts forward the following
hypotheses:
Hypothesis 0: Consumer gender does not
determine positive and negative advertising
responses to stereotypical images.
Hypothesis 1: Consumer gender determines
positive and negative advertising responses to
stereotypical images.
In view of previous research on the effectiveness
of advertisements achieved through stereotypic
influence, this article seeks to empirically
demonstrate the results of gender and cross-
gender consumer responses. The reason for
conducting the study is that research on the
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influence of the studied reactions as part of
consumer reactance is extremely limited, and the
results of the studies would supplement the
scientific information on the researched topic.
Methodology
The methodological basis of the research is the
general scientific principles for systematizing
and summarizing the results of research on the
achieved effects of stereotypical influence. The
purpose of the present study is to examine the
influence of gender on consumer susceptibility to
stereotypical images, as well as the resulting
positive and negative consumer reactions. In the
study, an Internet computer-based survey
management survey with the following modules
was implemented: 1) first module - demographic
characteristics of the respondents; 2) second
module – physical characteristics with images of
men and women in advertising – 10 statements;
3) third module - trait descriptors with images of
men and women in advertising – 10 statements;
4) fourth module – role behaviour with images of
men and women in advertising – 10 statements.
Respondents must accept or reject statements
about male, female, or both-gendered ads. This
scale contains 30 items, organized in 3 subscales
(10 items in each subscale with good validity and
consistency), corresponding to the stereotypical
images in the advertisement: physical
characteristics (Cronbach α 0.56), trait
descriptors (Cronbach α 0.69), role behaviour
(Cronbach α 0.61). The stated Cronbach α values
can be considered acceptable for scales up to 10
items (Ganeva, 2016). The validity of the whole
questionnaire (Cronbach α 0.71) also shows good
reliability of the scale for the sample studied. The
respondent answered a total of 30 questions on a
five-point Likert-type scale, which includes
grades from 1 - I do not agree, to 5 - I agree.
Results and Discussion
The survey was conducted from the beginning of
2021 to the beginning of 2022. Self- reported
data was collected from a total sample of 356
students from Bulgarian, ensuring a size for a
representative 95% (being e = ± 5%; p = q =
0.50). Respondents were randomly selected from
the general population according to their self-
reported gender. All respondents were asked by
e-mail to complete an online questionnaire.
About 2% of the students did not indicate their
gender: "prefer not to say", and their answers
were not included in the study, because
according to the requirements of stereotypical
influence studies, gender is a determining factor.
The total sample comprised 46.91% are men
(167 people) and 53.09% are women (189
people), aged 18 to 65 years old (M=32.41).
Data were processed with the statistical analysis
package SPSS 19.0. The following basic
statistical analyses were used: One-way analysis
of variance ANOVA to examine the influence of
gender on gender stereotypes as well as cross-
gender responses to advertising influence.
Student-Fischer t-test for the statistical
significance of the differences between the
means for the groups formed by gender and
between the variables comprising the stereotypic
influence scales.
In order to establish the achieved influence of
gender stereotypes in advertising on the groups
of respondents, one-factor analysis of variance
was applied (Table 2).
Table 2.
Influence of gender on gender stereotypes in advertisement (ANOVA)
Indicators of gender stereotypes
F
p
Means (Male)
Means
(Female)
Physical characteristics
5.33
0.01
3.12
3.89
Trait descriptors
4.65
0.03
2.76
4.21
Role behaviour
3.24
0.00
3.41
3.37
General susceptibility on
stereotypical images
14.89
0.00
3.09
3.82
The results show that gender as an independent
variable affects the gender stereotypes in the
advertisements studied, as well as the general
susceptibility to stereotype influence. For the
sample formed, there are statistically significant
gender differences in susceptibility to gender
stereotyping in advertisements. The highest
influence of trait descriptors was found in women
(F = 4.65; p <0.03; Means(female) =4.21), and
the highest influence of role behaviour in men (F
= 3.24; p <0.00; Means (male)=3.41). On the
other hand, the weakest influence was derived for
role behaviour in women (F = 3.24; p < 0.00;
Means(female) = 3.37), and the weakest
influence of trait descriptors in men (F = 4.65; p
< 0.03; Means(male) =2.76). Therefore, men
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declare the most positive reactions to
advertisements with stereotypes based on role
behaviour, and in contrast, women show positive
reactions to advertisements with stereotypes
based on trait descriptors. The explanation of
these results is in support of other empirical
evidence, which states that when confirming
stereotypical behaviour (Phillips & McQuarrie,
2011), men in advertisements are more often
depicted in role behaviour than women, which
reinforces the role of societal stereotypes
(Eisend, Plagemann & Sollwedel, 2014). In
addition, the obtained result does not indicate
that gender deviates from equality, because
women responded positively to trait descriptors
that examine concern for a close person,
affection, and others.
In order to derive evidence regarding the cross-
gender influence of advertisements on both
genders of users, one-factor analysis of variance
was applied, looking for users' reactions to
images of the opposite gender (Table 3).
Table 3.
Cross-gender effect on gender stereotypes in advertisements
Indicators of gender stereotypes
F
p
Means (Male)
Means (Female)
Images of men in advertising
4.21
0.00
2.38
4.10
Images of woman in advertising
5.69
0.00
4.02
1.28
Images of men and women in
advertising
3.40
0.01
3.89
2.99
General susceptibility on stereotypical
images
15.62
0.00
3.45
2.79
Gender as an independent variable was again an
influencing factor in achieving the cross-gender
effect through advertising, with users of both
genders having high values regarding images of
the opposite gender: for men (F = 5.69; p < 0.00;
Means(male) = 4.02), and in females (F = 4.21; p <
0.00; Means(female) = 4.10). Therefore, the
presence of opposite-gender images does not
elicit reactance against a stereotypical
advertising image (Brehm, 1966; Thorbjørnsen
& Dahlén, 2011). This empirical evidence
supports the views that advertisements aimed at
only one of the genders would achieve a greater
effect among consumers in Bulgaria than
advertisings aimed at both genders (Spasova
&Taneva, 2021).
Another important indicator of establishing the
presence or absence of a negative reaction is the
low values obtained from the one-factor analysis
of variance regarding the respondents'
advertising response to advertisements
containing images of their gender: in men (F =
4.21; p < 0.00; Means (male) =2.38), and in females
(F =5.69; p <0.00; Means(female) =1.28). The
obtained results are empirical evidence of the
achieved weak influence of stereotypical
advertising intended for the same gender. Many
researchers of stereotype influence in advertising
find negative reactions of women to stereotypes
of the female gender (Akestam, Rosengren,
Dahlen, Liljidal & Berg, 2021, p.67). One of the
reasons why women react negatively to
stereotypical advertising images of women is that
they believe that others are negatively affected by
such images (Akestam, 2017, p. 71). Although
women were initially considered to be the only
target audience for advertisements featuring
women, in recent years the viewpoints have
shifted (Eisend, 2019) because the standards of
equality between men and women have also
changed (Eisend, 2010; Knoll, Eisend &
Steinhagen, 2011). The results show that
consumers of both genders respond equally to
advertisements depicting male and female
images, the effect achieved being statistically
significantly higher for males (F = 3.40; p < 0.01;
Means(male) =3.89) than for females (F = 3.40; p
< 0.01; Means(female) = 2.99). In addition to
confirming the trend of higher male sensitivity
and lower female sensitivity to advertisements
with binary images of both genders, the
comparison of results in Table 3. This empirical
evidence can be used by marketers and
advertisers because advertisements depicting
both genders are used to persuade mostly male
target groups and less often for advertisements
aimed at women (Table 4).
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Table 4.
Susceptibility to persuasion, using male and female images
Susceptibility to persuasion, using male and female images
Images in advertisements
Mean
T
p
1. Images of men in advertising
3.02
3.97 =
1,2
t
0.00
2. Images of woman in advertising
3.16
2.56
= 1,3
t
0.00
3. Images of men and women in
advertising
3.99
4.52
- 1,4 =
t
0.01
4. Images of a product for men
3.40
2.01
= 1,5
t
0.00
5. Images of a product for women
3.71
4.26
2,3 =
t
0.02
3.02
2,4 =
t
0.03
3.44
=
2,5
t
0.00
3.61
3,4 =
t
0.00
3.19
3,5 =
t
0.00
4.91
4,5 =
t
0.04
Similar studies show mixed results, which are
determined by a number of factors such as:
nationality, culture, societal and other factors that
would guide the reactions of users of both
genders. In the present study, these indicators for
the evaluation of advertisements are not taken
into account, but the Student-Fischer t-test for the
statistical significance of the differences between
the means for the groups, formed by gender and
between the variables comprising the stereotypic
influence scales, show mixed results. Applying a
stereotypical (with images of men and women)
versus a non-stereotypical advertisement (with
images of products without people present)
affects affect statistically significantly more for
advertisements with images of men and women
(Mean 3.99) as well as with images of products
for women (Mean 3.71), versus product images
for men (Mean 3.40). When taking into account
the simultaneous influence of the studied
variables, a higher achieved influence was found
for images of women in advertising, as well as
products intended for women (Mean 3.71; t2,5 =
3.44; p < 0.00), and also images of women as
well as images of men and women (Mean 3.16;
t2,3 = 4.26; p < 0.02). The results support the
claims of other researchers that men are
presented in prominent visual and auditory roles,
while women are portrayed in stereotypical ways
(Paek, Nelson & Vilela, 2011, p.192), that is,
higher achieved stereotypical influence is found
in women through stereotypical advertisements,
compared to men.
The shift in viewpoints was found to affect men
(Eisend, 2019), because comparing the values
showed that men reacted negatively to
advertising depicting men and products for men
(Mean 3.02; t1,4 = -4.52; p < 0.01). Therefore,
advertisements aimed at men evoke more
pronounced psychological reactance (Brehm,
1966; Thorbjørnsen & Dahlén, 2011) in
consumers compared to advertisements aimed at
women. Therefore, it can be assumed that the
practical implementation of more images of men
in advertisements aimed at men will be more
persuasive in the single advertisement depicting
men and women when the gender characteristics
of the target groups are not taken into account. It
is possible that this hypothesis can be tested in
future studies.
Conclusions
The present study offers some empirical
evidence for the mixed reactions typical of both
genders of the audience that are affected by
cross-gender influences. In addition, studies on
the influence of stereotypes in advertisements on
consumer beliefs are entirely dependent on other
additional factors such as cross-gender influence,
that is, the attitude of one gender towards a
certain stereotype can largely determine the
attitude of the other gender. Other studies prove
this claim through positive effects of using non-
stereotypical images of women and men in
advertisements (Liljedal, Berg & Dahlen, 2020;
Bian & Wang, 2015; Janssen & Paas, 2014;
Antioco, Smeesters, Le Boedec, 2012).
For the formed sample, statistically significant
gender differences, were found in relation to
susceptibility to gender stereotypes in
advertisements, with the highest achieved
influence observed in men through the role
behavior indicator such as caring for children,
being a leader, and in women - trait descriptors
such as self-affirmation, concern for others.
Therefore, some new social effects are reported,
due to the adoption of different roles as well as
mixing of gender functions (Maher & Childs,
2003). Findings also demonstrate the high
effectiveness of advertisements that focus on
consumers of one gender, but not both (Johnson,
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2014; Darley & Smith, 2013; Wolin, 2003). In
this case, gender deviates from equality only for
men who are depicted as part of the family, and
there is no deviation for women because they are
often depicted in a role of concern for others
(Eisend, 2010; Knoll, Eisend & Steinhagen,
2011).
The achieved stereotypical influence depends to
a large extent on the cross-gender effect, which
is measured in the present work. Similar results
reported for both genders, that is, the presence of
images of the opposite gender does not cause
reactance against a stereotypical advertising
image in respondents (Brehm, 1966;
Thorbjørnsen & Dahlén, 2011). The explanations
for this result are complex: types of
advertisements, the ways in which stereotypical
images are presented, the predisposition of both
genders to stereotypical images, and others.
Empirical evidence supports the claim that
gender stereotypes lead to positive self-
perceptions and induce equal opportunities for
both genders in society (Davis, 2002). In addition
to this statement is the similarity in results, when
reaching influence from advertisements intended
for both genders.
The application of stereotypical (with images of
men and women) versus non-stereotypical
advertising (with images of products without the
presence of people) achieves a significant effect
for advertising aimed at both men and women, as
well as advertising with images of products for
women. Therefore, the author subscribes to the
statement that the presence of stereotypical
images of both genders does not cause strong
reactance in the opposite gender, but rather
stimulates some mixed reactions in consumers
self-identifying to one of the genders. Stronger
psychological reactance (Brehm, 1966;
Thorbjørnsen & Dahlén, 2011) have been
reported in male consumers under mixed
influence achieved by advertisements depicting
men and products for men. The thoroughness of
the research requires conducting additional
studies to deduce the cause-and-effect
relationships for the achieved results. Future
research, aimed at cross-gender influences in
advertising, should take into account other
demographic or socio-psychological factors
causing mixed reactions among consumers of
products and services in Bulgaria.
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