10
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
DOI: https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.60.12.1
How to Cite:
Chaika, O., Sharmanova, N., Maliuga, N., & Savytska, I. (2022). Multiculturalism in modern mass media: analysis of
stereotypes. Amazonia Investiga, 11(60), 10-22. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.60.12.1
Multiculturalism in modern mass media: analysis of stereotypes
Мультикультурність у сучасних ЗМІ: аналіз стереотипів
Received: January 23, 2023 Accepted: February 20, 2023
Written by:
Oksana Chaika1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4317-9456
Natalia Sharmanova2
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4820-3619
Natalia Maliuga3
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7956-6987
Inna Savytska4
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3795-0427
Abstract
The article aims to consider multicultural
discourse through the prism of media coverage.
Contemporary media are characterized from the
political engagement perspective, and that of its
resources and media presentation of news related
to multicultural issues. The study adopts a
content analysis method of media resources and
displays ways of presenting the information.
Finally, the study tests hypotheses that explain
acculturation and intercultural relations in
multicultural societies. The current cultural
situation is characterized by the global
development of media resources, the acceleration
of creating and distributing global
communication tools via national and
transnational media. The results showed that
perceived security, intercultural contacts,
adoption of a multicultural ideology,
acculturation strategies, and expectations
significantly impact mutual acculturation and
relations of the host population, migrants, and
other social categories of society. Therefore,
efforts through the media to improve relations
between representatives of different cultures,
communities, and population segments should
aim at increasing the basic sense of security and
adopting a multicultural ideology. In addition,
there is a need to understand the essence of
1
PhD in Linguistics, Associate Professor, Department of Foreign Philology and Translation, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences
and Education, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine; Visiting Researcher, Luxembourg
Center for Educational Testing, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.
2
PhD in Linguistics, Associate Professor, Department of Ukrainian Language, Kryvyi Rih State Pedagogical University, Kryvyi Rih,
Ukraine.
3
PhD in Linguistics, Associate Professor, Department of Ukrainian Language, Kryvyi Rih State Pedagogical University, Kryvyi Rih,
Ukraine.
4
PhD in Philosophy, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy and International Communication, Dean at Faculty of
Humanities, Social Sciences and Education, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.
Chaika, O., Sharmanova, N., Maliuga, N., Savytska, I. / Volume 11 - Issue 60: 10-22 / December, 2022
Volume 11 - Issue 60
/ December 2022
11
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
tolerance, respect for ‘the other’ and recognition
in multiculturalism and the role of the media in
shaping ways of relating to other people and
peoples.
Keywords: modern media, media resource,
modern culture, multiculturalism, hypothesis of
multiculturalism, stereotype.
Introduction
Some researchers view globalization as a
negative phenomenon. Proponents of this
interpretation want to avoid seeing the obvious:
the modern world is a multitude of peoples,
religions, and cultures, all intensively interacting.
Therefore, the specificity of these interactions
requires, on the one hand, building open relations
between representatives of different cultures
(Halse, 2022). However, on the other hand, each
nation faces the goals of preserving its identity.
Thus, the strategy of interethnic, interfaith
communication in a globalizing world should be
under new legal, moral, and social norms that
regulate this complex area of human relations. It
is believed they should be based on
multiculturalism and tolerance instead of
chauvinism and confrontation. At the same time,
a way to solve the issue may go with the
emphasis on multiculturalism, and some
researchers assume that it may start with
multicultural education propelling tolerance,
respect to the other(s) and recognition of equality
(Chaika et al., 2021b). This concept usually
refers to a set of ideas and actions of various
social actors (state and other organizations)
aimed at the equal development of different
cultures, overcoming discrimination against
multiple groups of the population in all spheres
of public life, ensuring equal chances for
employment and education, the abolition of
hidden and apparent obstacles in an
administrative career (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011).
Multiculturalism means promoting the
coexistence of different cultures in one country
or the whole world. Tolerance is a psychological
or socio-psychological characteristic of
individuals and social groups, manifested in their
interaction with other individuals or social
groups (Koopmans, 2013; Chaika et al., 2021a).
Thus, multiculturalism and tolerance are closely
connected. However, these are not identical
concepts. All this gives grounds for the
conclusion that multiculturalism is not just an
ethical doctrine but also a particular political
program and state policy characteristic of
countries seeking to promote the formation of an
open society.
Due to the growth of migration processes
throughout the world, the number of
monocultural countries is decreasing, and the
ethnic diversity of the population characterizes
most societies. At the same time, representatives
of various ethnic, cultural, and religious groups
live together in the same locality and often in the
neighborhood. Therefore, the purpose of the
article is to demonstrate multiculturalism in mass
media and its influence on people’s
consciousness and the formation of their attitude
toward multitudes of other nations, taking into
account the rapid development of
communication tools and media resources.
With the development of the Internet, the media
network covers even the most remote points of
the planet. It truly becomes a state within states,
influencing society both within national states
and on a global scale. It would seem that national
media are no longer subject to absolute control
over the flow of information, and no one,
including even nationalist regimes, can prevent
the population from accessing the Internet to
obtain alternative details. Most of the world’s
media, particularly in the United States, are
controlled by extensive media holdings, which
are the leading players in the global media
market (Holland & Fermor, 2021). Disney,
Viacom (CBS Corporation), Time Warner,
Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp, Bertelsmann, and
General Electric own nearly 100% of the U.S.
media market.
Thus, it is not an exaggeration to say that the
media implement policies fully in the interests of
the groups that control them. Through the press,
the ideological policy is implemented both
within the country and abroad. Even the most
prominent publications in the USA, which claim
to be objective in the presentation of materials,
do not open but adhere to particular political
views. For example, The New York Times, an
12
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
influential newspaper, is generally recognized as
a left-liberal publication. At the same time, The
Wall Street Journal leans more towards the right
wing of the political spectrum. Time and
Newsweek magazines are moderately leftist,
while U.S. News is right-wing, although all three
publications strive for an objective presentation
of materials. For example, Time magazine names
“Person of the Year”, U.S. News publishes
annual rankings of American colleges and
universities.
Literature Review
Currently, some countries are characterized by
hatred towards visitors, a desire to “cleanse the
country of foreign filth”, eradicate “non-
traditional religions”, etc. There are
manifestations of intolerance, terrorism,
xenophobia, aggressive nationalism, racism,
alienation, and discrimination against national,
ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities,
refugees, migrant workers, and socially
disadvantaged groups in societies (Alvares &
Dahlgren, 2016). In addition, there are instances
of violence and intimidation against individuals
exercising their right to freedom of opinion and
expression. This situation requires the
intensification of media activities. It is necessary
to form a “system of immunity” to ethnic and
religious aggressiveness to stimulate the interest
of journalists in the conceptual foundations of the
cultural policy of the authorities. With the help of
the media, it is possible to ensure the
transparency of the decision-making process in
the field of cultural policy and the functioning
and interaction of national-cultural autonomies
(Halse, 2022).
At the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, corporate
media brought the issues of multiculturalism and
tolerance to attention of the general public in the
United States. They accused the academic world
– the heirs of the turbulent 60s, who moved from
street demonstrations to the audience, of a kind
of tyranny of civil rights and political
correctness, in discrimination against the white
majority, in what they have done from
universities mini-states with authoritarian
regimes (Downing, 2018). At the same time, the
press not only aroused interest in this issue but,
in a relatively short period, formed a negative
attitude in public. The problem of ethnic
stereotyping, and in general, presenting issues
related to the culture of minorities, the concepts
of race, and ethnicity in the media, has been well
studied in Western science. For example,
discourse analysis studies have shown that media
coverage does shape public opinion about
minorities. Based on a qualitative analysis of
interviews with immigrants living in poor
neighborhoods in American cities (Horsti &
Nikunen, 2013), it was found that the media,
along with personal experience and rumors,
constitute one of the primary sources of stories
about ethnic minorities for the so-called “white”
population. Media is a crucial element in
appropriating and reproducing general social
knowledge about ethnic minorities.
According to the American researcher of the
media environment, the media focuses on
criminal news. As a result, racial stereotypes are
created using “fried sensational” facts since
people from low-income backgrounds mostly
commit crimes (Marrun et al., 2019). Moreover,
little attention is paid not to minorities, as
multiculturalists believe, but to representatives of
the dominant population, who also lose their jobs
and commit crimes. This is just the kind of news
that could break Americans’ automatic
association between minorities and social issues
(Atton, 2015). The media have always been
considered a mirror of society. On the one hand,
if this mirror creates images through which much
of social life is interpreted, then there is concern
that the images distorted by the mirror may, in
turn, generate prejudices in the audience. On the
other hand, if discrimination has become
widespread in society, and therefore among
journalists, then the media will reflect these
prejudices (Augoustinos & Every, 2007).
Another critical factor is that the gap between
natural and ideological diversity in the media
environment is widening because journalism in
this area is increasingly associated with
multicultural marketing and PR. Although in the
1980s and 1990s, the media were characterized
by increasing segmentation and polarization,
mass print and electronic media are giving way
to publications and channels focused on specific
target audiences, among which minorities are far
from the last. As a result, the Spanish-language
press, TV, and radio channels reach new
audiences. Instead of ineffective mass marketing,
media structures begin to work along the path of
strictly directed targeted marketing. For example,
the Spanish-language television network
Univision has over 600 local affiliates in the
United States.
A study by the European Monitoring Center on
Racism and Xenophobia in Vienna notes that the
image of immigrants and interpretation of ethnic
relationships in the media are not necessarily
deliberately distorted, but rather the media is an
influential component of a more extensive
Volume 11 - Issue 60
/ December 2022
13
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
process of reproduced social representations in
the public sphere. Thus, journalists and
publications often reproduce forms of ethnic
inequality “accidentally”, for example, due to
professional routine and restrictions associated
with the news production process (Huddleston et
al., 2015). Racism in the media is often not
blatant. Hidden stereotypes, generalizing or
exculpatory statements, or even the absence of
the point of view of ethnic minorities in
publications and reports give rise to prejudices
and the legitimization of segregation practices
and hostility towards minorities. It should also
not be forgotten that over time, in countries with
a strong tradition of ethnic minorities, such as the
United States, groups have gained greater access
to direct representation in the media, hence,
contributing to a more balanced picture of
cultural diversity.
Methodology
The content analysis technique aims to identify
multiculturalism stereotypes in modern media
(Halse, 2021). The methodology is a scheme for
deductive content analysis, during the
development of which the literature on issues of
multiculturalism and interethnic relations was
analyzed. Based on a theoretical analysis (Berry,
2011), stereotypes groups of multiculturalism in
the news media were formed. The developed
scheme allows fixing the display of
multiculturalism in the news. Most information
about a modern person’s world is not available
for direct observation, and it seems essential to
study what kind of information people receive
through the media. The relevance in studying the
image of the world in the media is vital when it
comes to interethnic relations and attitudes
towards outgroups:
• Immigrants actively use the media to get
more information about life in a new
country; and
• The ethnic majority learns about the
minority and how it should be treated
through the media, especially when there are
no personal contacts (Ward & Masgoret,
2009).
Prosperous coexistence of representatives of
different ethnic groups is possible subject to the
following conditions:
• Confidence in one’s own identity, which
leads to mutual respect among
representatives of different ethnic groups
and the reduction of discrimination (Chaika
et al., 2022a);
• Participation and involvement of
representatives of different ethnic groups
both in the life of ethnic communities and in
the life of society as a whole, which provides
people with the necessary social capital for a
prosperous life (Chaika et al., 2022b);
• Contact between representatives of different
ethnic groups, which leads to mutual
acceptance of groups; and
• The presence of a common identity for
representatives of different ethnic groups
(Chaika et al., 2022a).
Various state programs should be aimed at
observing these conditions, and attention is also
paid to multiculturalism in education (Zembylas,
2020). In addition, people’s attitudes towards
multiculturalism are being actively explored in
Europe and Western countries; Ukraine here
makes no exception.
Two main approaches are often distinguished
when considering intercultural relations in the
media (Bona, N.C., & de Carvalho, 2018). One
supports the eventual assimilation of immigrants
into the host community, which results in a
homogeneous culture and a shared national
identity. The other approach is based on the
implementation of two goals: (i) The
preservation of the cultural characteristics of
migrants for generations; and (ii) The equal
participation of all groups and individuals in the
life of the rest of society.
Canada is the first state in the world in which the
policy of multiculturalism acquired an official
status (Kalin & Berry, 1982). The Canadian
approach to multiculturalism in the media, based
on two principles – diversity and equality, has
ensured the popularity of the concept, which
includes three hypotheses that can be
psychologically verified. The fundamental goal
of the multicultural policy is to increase the
mutual acceptance of each other by members of
ethnocultural groups. This goal is achieved
through three other essential components in the
media:
• The cultural component of the policy is
implemented through the provision of
support and encouragement for preserving
culture and developing all ethnocultural
groups.
• The social (intercultural) component
characterizes the possibility of positive
interaction between representatives of
various ethnic groups by ensuring intergroup
contact and removing barriers that prevent
14
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
equal participation in the daily life of
society.
• Intercultural communication indicates the
need for a standard, official language so that
representatives of all ethnic groups can be
included in the daily life of society. The
inferred relationships between the
components reflect the three hypotheses that
were tested in our study (McCay-Peet &
Quan-Haase, 2017).
The multiculturalism hypothesis links cultural
preservation and security to positive intercultural
relationships (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Schematic model of the expressed multiculturalism hypothesis in media.
Designed as compiled by the authors
This hypothesis means that if people have a basic
sense of security (for example, when there is no
threat to their culture and identity), they will
accept those who are different from them. This
hypothesis is based on the basic premise of the
Canadian multicultural policy, which states that
if members of society are characterized by
confidence and positive cultural identity, then the
positiveness of intercultural relations (including
the desire to contact representatives of other
cultural groups, respect for others and reduced
levels of discrimination) will increase. On the
contrary, prejudice and discrimination will
increase when people feel their cultural identity
is threatened.
The integration hypothesis is the conjugation of
maintaining one’s culture (cultural component)
and participation in intercultural contacts
(intercultural component) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Schematic model of the multiculturalism integration through the realms of life.
Designed as compiled by the authors
Volume 11 - Issue 60
/ December 2022
15
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
This hypothesis suggests that when individuals
and groups are included in the life of the host
society, they do not lose touch with their culture.
They will achieve tremendous success in life,
including higher sociocultural competence,
subjective well-being, and life satisfaction.
The contact hypothesis characterizes the
relationship of interethnic, intergroup contacts
with the mutual acceptance of representatives of
different ethnic groups in a multicultural society
(Figure 3).
Figure 3. Schematic model of the multiculturalism expression through contacts.
Designed as compiled by the authors
This hypothesis assumes that intercultural
contact will promote mutual acceptance under
certain conditions, especially equality.
Results and Discussion
The problem of the media component in
multicultural discourse is quite complex.
Although, on the one hand, the media form a
solid opposition to multicultural processes in
society; on the other hand, a multicultural society
adapts media resources for itself and actively
uses them to present and lobby for the pressing
problems of minorities (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Schematic model of multiculturalism in media.
Designed as compiled by the authors
16
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
At the present development stage of society, it
can be stated with confidence that the political
elite and society have incorporated the ideas of
diversity.
Currently, there is empirical evidence for the
multiculturalism hypothesis in the media on the
example of some countries. When studying the
mutual attitudes of domestic migrants, it was
found that cultural security predicted tolerance, a
preference for integration, and an orientation
towards social equality in both groups. It is
important to note that the policy of
multiculturalism in Canada differs markedly
from the multiculturalism proclaimed in other
countries (Kalin & Berry, 1982). The peculiarity
of Canada is that, firstly, this society was created
by the descendants of migrants, i.e., there is no
“indigenous” population in this society (except
for a relatively small number of Indians).
Secondly, there is no numerically superior ethnic
group that would be regarded as dominant in
society and would be at the top of the ethnic
status hierarchy. That is, Canada is a community
of migrants. In European countries, the situation
is different – they have a historically dominant
majority in the country and migrants
(Casero-Ripollés, 2019). If multiculturalism
proved effective in Canada, it could have been a
more successful policy in several European
states, which led to its criticism from the heads
of these states.
There is a point of view that the policy towards
migrants implemented in European countries has
been hastily called multicultural. In these
countries, cultural diversity was recognized.
Still, conditions were not created for the equality
of various ethnic groups, the preservation of their
cultures, and the implementation of equal status
relationships. In European countries, ethnic
diversity as a demographic phenomenon is called
multiculturalism. However, multiculturalism in
the media should also be implemented at the
political level, which was fully released in
Canada.
Studies on intercultural relations and
acculturation found integration strategy most
often led to better adaptation of migrants
compared with other systems. A possible
explanation for this could be that people who are
“dual-linked” (with their own culture and the
culture of the host society) receive support and
resources from two cultures, for instance, the
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. They are also
competent in interacting with members of both
cultures. The social capital acquired through such
multiple social and cultural connections makes it
possible to achieve success using the resources of
various communities and groups. Empirical
studies have also obtained evidence regarding the
association of integration with more successful
adaptation.
Let us talk about the negative impact of the media
on creating an audience. When formulating the
reasons why materials appear in periodicals that
contribute to the spread of extremist sentiments
in society, journalists themselves quite often fix
the fact that the most powerful incentive in favor
of preparing such publications is money. True,
sometimes journalists admit that they need a
clearer idea of the consequences of their
activities. To prevent extremist speeches in the
media, according to representatives of the
journalistic community, it is necessary to:
• Comply with professional, ethical codes of
journalists (Harcup, 2020);
• Introduce the ideas and spirit of tolerance
and civic responsibility into the activities of
journalists;
• Strengthen the state and local legal
framework and ensure its strict
implementation.
The media, in order to promote the formation of
a tolerant consciousness and prevent the spread
of extremism and violence, must form respect
among audiences for the existing diversity of
cultures, kindly show the variety of values and
ideas that different people adhere to, and reveal
the anti-social nature of extremism in its various
manifestations (Alvares & Dahlgren, 2016).
There are three opposing forces in the modern
media space. The first position is business, the
second is the institution of influence, and the
third is the means of dialogue and an institution
of civil society.
The first two directions are clearly in the lead. It
can be assumed that this is primarily due to the
unwillingness of many journalists and heads of
media resources to actively participate in the
“tolerization” of society. This business needs to
be more professional, and the investment of
forces and resources in social actions, which in
the separate future may bring dividends in the
form of a civilized, humanitarian-minded
society, is not particularly attractive to today’s
workers of the pen and microphone. It follows
from this that to strengthen the role of the media
in the formation of tolerance and multicultural
attitudes in society; it is necessary to change the
self-consciousness of journalists and the
activities of the structures in the professional
journalistic community.
Volume 11 - Issue 60
/ December 2022
17
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
Lowering the level of aggressiveness of the
media requires not only the awareness of the
importance of this problem by journalists but also
the mastery of a fundamentally new toolkit of
professional activity that ensures the
organization of a mass dialogue between all
participants in social processes (Kavada & Poell,
2021). Dialogue is the key to tolerance and, as a
result, multiculturalism. In this way, the essence
of the new professional culture of journalists can
be formulated.
It is important to distinguish between
multiculturalism or cultural complexity as a state
found in many cultural spaces and
multiculturalism as a set of theories and practices
for understanding this phenomenon.
Multiculturalism is one of the most characteristic
manifestations of the actualization of horizontal,
rhizomatic cultural interactions that characterize
the most important shift in the world culture of
postmodernity. Undoubtedly, in its complete
form, it was formulated, evaluated,
institutionalized, and transferred to the area of
mass consumption in the United States. At the
same time, according to the exact definition by
researchers of multicultural issues in the media
field, multiculturalism is not a negation of
European culture. However, it opposes
Eurocentrism as the still dominant point of view.
The world is divided into the West and
everything else, and language and thinking are
organized around binary oppositions.
Multiculturalism cannot be reduced only to the
primitive and fierce struggle of national and
ethnic minorities and other “others” for their
rights to representation (Lund Bjånesøy, 2019).
This phenomenon is much more complex and
contradictory and covers almost all aspects of
cultural dynamics. This indicates an urgent need
to return to understanding the essence of
tolerance, multiculturalism, and the role of media
in shaping ways of relating to other people.
Analysis of publications in the media
environment regarding their influence on the
formation of attitudes of tolerant consciousness
A generalization of many studies that have been
carried out provides a basis for some
generalizations. Clearly expressed intolerant
statements are contained in approximately 40 %
of the texts published in national and regional
media. The principal bearer of bigoted judgments
is political themes (Moffitt, 2016); in regional –
economics. In the model of reality constructed by
the media, there are many stereotypes, which, in
turn, fall into several subgroups of varying
degrees of danger. The following stereotypes are
cited as “strangers” in the media, especially when
referring to the data mainly collected from the
Ukrainian media resources:
1. Representatives of the authorities. Officials
and current politicians are most often
described in a negative light. They
(regardless of political, regional, and other
affiliations) are selfish and immoral. Busy
with satisfying their interests and needs, they
do not allow society to develop adequately,
“putting a spoke in the wheel” to everyone
who seeks a decent existence for themselves
and their loved ones. The mass media are
pretty critical of the governments of the city,
regional, regional republican levels, law
enforcement agencies, and the judiciary.
According to the press, they are all
unprofessional, illiterate, inefficient, and
prone to corruption.
2. Representatives of various peoples. The
predominantly positive attitude of the media
was earned by Ukrainians, British,
Americans, Italians, French, and Germans; a
negative context accompanies such
nationalities as russians, chechens,
belarusians, iranians, and other “aggressors”
(the names of nationalities and peoples are
intentionally spelt from a small letter
underlining the widely accepted attitudes by
the contemporary Ukrainians to them, for
example).
3. The next category is “the rich and the
oligarchs”. The rich “have taken over the
whole country and are pumping out fabulous
profits from the public property,” and the
poor, respectively, suffer from economic
reforms and theft of those in power.
Entrepreneurs are suspected of violations
and the sale of low-quality goods.
4. Next in the list of stereotypes is the category
“migrants and visitors”. Again, they are
described as troublemakers.
5. Stereotypes of various “religious
denominations”. There are still many
negative publications about Islam. Almost
nothing is written about Catholicism, except
for informing about events in which the
main character is the Pope.
6. In some cases, representatives of
disadvantaged social groups act as
“stereotypes”: the homeless, alcohol addicts,
HIV-infected, etc. As a result, they are
described in the media primarily as
unpleasant and dangerous “neighbors”.
7. In the media oriented towards an adult
audience, “youth and teenagers” can be put
forward as “stereotypes,” which, in addition
18
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
to addiction to smoking, alcohol, drugs, and
promiscuity, are accused of social passivity
and a categorical unwillingness to work
(Dube & McGiboney, 2018).
The analysis showed that the degree of hostility
shown by the media concerning various
categories of people is determined, first of all, by
the attributed aggressiveness. Intolerant objects
carry some danger, such as absorption
(economic, demographic, territorial,
ideological), or are capable of direct or imaginary
aggression (drug addicts, homeless people,
alcoholics, criminal groups, migrants who
profess other religions, etc.).
Another factor influencing the degree of
tolerance of publications and the search for
“unacceptable persons” is the ideological
paradigm that editorial teams adhere to. We
distinguish three main paradigms:
• Social rejection;
• Social survival;
• Social success.
It should immediately be noted that most regional
publications adhere to the first two paradigms,
and the third paradigm is most common in
national publications.
Publications focused on the ideology of social
survival are more tolerant of national groups and
less intolerant of some social groups that,
according to the bearers of this ideology,
interfere with survival. Mass media oriented
towards the ideology of social success are
characterized by a high level of tolerance towards
both social and national groups (Ganter &
Paulino, 2021). Representatives who profess this
paradigm are the least likely to blame their
problems on external forces.
Journalistic ways of discrimination in the media
The analysis showed that in journalism, there are
four main ways of reproducing the described
objects and expressing one’s attitude to the things
of description.
A. The first way is to describe events and
processes such expressive means that subtly
and unobtrusively form in the audience a
confident attitude towards the described
situation, circumstance, or their participants.
B. The second way is using direct author’s
assessments, which unambiguously indicate
to the audience the only possible, in the
author’s opinion, attitude towards the
described phenomena or situations.
C. The third way uses various explanatory
schemes designed to offer the audience a
certain logic for understanding the described
phenomenon or event.
D. The fourth way is to demonstrate such a
behavior model within the described events
or situations, which, according to the author,
is the most reasonable (Waisbord, 2022).
Journalists often use two main methods to form a
specific image of events or phenomena: a toned
(specifically colored) description and a direct
author’s assessment. Explanatory and primarily
behavioral models are used less often. Some texts
generally consist of only two components:
description and evaluation – no explanations and
models of reasonable action are offered. Through
words of specific content and emotional coloring,
the psychological states of the reading audience
are modulated, and good attitudes are formed
towards those to whom the “hate speech” is
directed (Aslan Ozgul & Veneti, 2021). This
achieves a double effect:
• Direct – this is what is the purpose of the
research influencing communication;
• Mediated – aimed at the mass consciousness
of the reading public.
A continuous discourse is being created that
suppresses the individual and forms a totalitarian
type of consciousness. A person with contempt
for people usually depersonalizes another
individual, perceives this person as second-rate,
or does not deserve the right to be called a person
(Yuen & Leung, 2019).
Studies have shown that the formation of
disrespect and contempt is carried out not only by
complex “hate speech” – direct and immediate
calls for violence but also by the middle one, in
which the factual component of the text carries
the main emotional and semantic load – the
justification of historical cases of violence and
discrimination; approval of the historical crimes
of a particular ethnic group; an indication, for the
purpose of discrediting, of links with mafia and
espionage organizations, etc. The relatively mild
“hate speech” identified by researchers,
characterized as incorrect statements in the
media, very subtly affects the formation of the
emotion of contempt. It includes mentioning the
name of an ethnic or religious group in a
derogatory context and citing relevant statements
and texts without proper commentary (Charles,
2020).
Volume 11 - Issue 60
/ December 2022
19
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
Most researchers proceed from the fact that
media tolerance consists of providing space for
public discussion on topical issues and freedom
for dialogue. This difference is vital in society.
The media should create a space for expressing
different positions, involve various participants
in discussing topical problems, and thereby
implement a strategy of tolerance that represents
other points of view both within one publication
and in polemics between different publications.
Journalists have many ways to convey to readers
the diversity of opinions and facts of thought in
society. Appropriate technologies have been
developed in the theory and practice of
journalism: dialogic genres, which include
interviews, conversations, etc.
On the importance of media in the formation of
multiculturalism
For the media to become an influential resource
for the formation of attitudes of tolerance, the
institutional foundations for the functioning of
the media must be transformed. We are talking
about the place of the media in public institutions
(Chee, 2012). To date, very primitive models
dominate. Media are either a resource of
information and communication or
intermediaries between the authorities and the
population. The time has come to understand that
the effectiveness of the media increases many
times when they are woven into a dense network
of civil society and constitute a necessary
element of the processes of self-government and
self-development of citizens. It is helpful to
distinguish the functions of citizens’
participation in adopting and implementing
decisions affecting their interests. However, the
corresponding institutional forms of social
structure processes are more comprehensive than
specific types developed in the West in recent
decades (public expertise and investigations,
environmental impact assessment, etc.). They
include such long-known and diverse civil
society institutions as local and corporate self-
government, professional and social
communities, and non-profit organizations.
In civil society, the holders of values, principles,
norms, and patterns of behavior, including
tolerant ones, are not the media but communities.
In this regard, special attention is paid to modern
conditions (Tumber & Waisbord, 2017). The
number of Internet users in the country is steadily
growing. When organizing and filling
communication channels with adequate, high-
quality information on the issue of tolerance, it is
necessary to use social networks around which
such communities are formed.
Another factor affecting the effectiveness of the
media as a resource for the formation of tolerant
attitudes is the independence of the media from
government and business, recognized by all
public institutions and felt by the audience. At the
same time, it is necessary to clarify that the
freedom of the media is the freedom to choose a
position, and the independence of the media,
according to tradition, is paradoxically called
their dependence on many different factors,
including the possibility of being tied to other
political subjects. The diversity and
multidirectional of the acting forces, multi-
screen, mosaic and internal inconsistency of the
overall picture determine its objectivity.
In striving for independence, the journalistic
community must clearly understand the measure
of its responsibility for the state of society. It is
time to stop considering the audience as an object
of manipulation or a set of consumers of an
information product and see readers, viewers,
and listeners as sovereign individuals who turn to
the media text to find examples of human
abilities and qualities in it. The assimilation of
which will allow these individuals to expand
their human capabilities. Instead, the media
should become a source of ways and methods
necessary for the audience to resolve the
problems facing people, including showing the
ways of personal self-improvement and
mastering tolerance technologies.
In order to effectively participate in the formation
of attitudes towards tolerance and
multiculturalism, the media themselves must
master a fundamentally new toolkit of
professional activity that ensures the
organization of a mass dialogue between all
participants in social processes (Palma &
Alcaíno, 2020). Dialogue is the key to success in
this matter. In this vein, the main direction of the
search for scientists and practitioners can be
formulated.
The idea of tolerance in multiculturalism fits
perfectly into the framework of dialogue thus set.
This is natural since the inevitability of
coexistence (preferably peaceful) of
representatives of different positions finds its
expression in the framework idea of dialogue –
whether it is about the human race or a student
dormitory (Rosenthal et al., 2007). Nevertheless,
when meeting with people who are different from
ourselves, we inevitably face a dilemma: whether
to consider our own position and views as correct
ones and the position and ideas of another person
as erroneous or to consider both sides by the side,
but already private and partial. The choice of the
20
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
first path leads to a monologue organization, a
struggle against dissidents (which sooner or later
necessarily turns into a battle against thinkers and
thinking as such); the choice of the second – to
dialogue, partnership, or rivalry, but limited by
certain limits, in the limiting case – by the frame
of law.
Conclusions
Foreign and domestic practice shows the attitude
towards tolerance and dialogue, including
multiculturalism, which can lead to notorious
political correctness. It risks turning dialogue and
tolerance into its opposite – a monologue and
diktat minorities. At the same time, people lose
the ability to truly self-determine: they identify
themselves only through group membership,
“ours” and “not ours” reappear, and the hierarchy
of cultural values is blurred. In order to avoid
these far-reaching troubles, tolerance and
dialogue in a multicultural context must be
limited. Such a limit is set by the frame of law,
which is understood in this case as the ultimate
frame of communication in conflict situations.
Within the framework of law, there can be no
enemies, only opponents, rivals, and opponents.
All conflicts can be resolved in this case by
political means or judicial procedure. The
dialogue framework means recognizing that all
people and nations are different, but everyone
has the right to their own approaches and views,
and no one has reason to declare them the only
true ones. The evolution of the multiculturalism
phenomenon in the media and its further
integration into the broad masses will provide an
opportunity for the peaceful coexistence of
people and an essential resource for development
in the interaction of different approaches,
interests, views, and different cultures.
Such an approach makes relatively high demand
on journalists, media workers, and the system of
relations between the media, government, and
society. There is a need for (a) observance by all
journalists of professional, ethical codes;
(b) introduction of ideas and the spirit of
tolerance into the activities of journalists through
special seminars, conferences, discussions,
pieces of training, etc.; (c) strengthening the legal
framework regulating the activities of journalists;
(d) creation of various structures that will carry
out a professional and expert evaluation of
controversial publications. As with any
intercultural practice, policies and related
programs must consider the political, cultural,
social, economic, and historical contexts.
Bibliographic references
Alvares, C., & Dahlgren, P. (2016). Populism,
extremism and media: mapping an uncertain
terrain. European Journal of Communication,
31(1), 46-57.
Aslan Ozgul, B., & Veneti, A. (2021). The
Different Organizational Structures of
Alternative Media: Through the Perspective
of Alternative Media Journalists in Turkey
and Greece. Digital Journalism, 10(8),
1302-1321.
Atton, C. (Ed.). (2015). The Routledge
Companion to Alternative and Community
Media. London: Routledge.
Augoustinos, M., & Every, D. (2007). The
language of ‘race’ and prejudice: a discourse
of denial, reason, and liberal-practical
politics. Journal of Language and Social
Psychology, 26(2), 123-141.
Berry, J. W. (2011). Integration and
multiculturalism: ways towards social
solidarity. Papers on Social Representations,
20(1), 21-221.
Bona, N.C., & de Carvalho, G.G. (2018).
Alternative Journalism in Brazil: Which
Voices Are Heard? Commons. Revista de
Comunicación y Ciudadanía Digital, 7(2),
5-36.
Casero-Ripollés, A. (2019). Alternative Media
and Social Movements in Europe’s Digital
Landscape. Routledge Handbook of
Contemporary European Social Movements,
edited by C. Flesher Fominaya and
R. A. Feenstra, 326-340. London: Routledge.
Chaika, O., Absaliamova, Y., Marchuk, V.,
Dovhaniuk, E., & Kolesnykov, A. (2022a).
Poly- and multiculturalism underpinning
personality formation of future foreign
language teachers. Amazonia Investiga,
11(52), 221-231.
https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.52.04.24
Chaika, O., Lytvyniuk, O., Trofymenko, A.,
Zaluzhna, O., & Shepel, Y. (2021a).
Fundamentals of poly- /multicultural
education for a modern foreign language
instructor in the system of their professional
and personal growth. AD ALTA: Journal of
Interdisciplinary Research, 11/02-XXIV,
150-155.
http://www.magnanimitas.cz/ADALTA/110
224/papers/A_27.pdf
Chaika, O., Polishchuk, O., Honcharuk, L.,
Hutyriak, O., & Kolodina, L. (2022b). Poly- /
Multicultural Education of Future Foreign
Language Teachers in a Crosscultural
Multilingual Environment. AD ALTA:
Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 12/01-
XXVI, 122-128.
Volume 11 - Issue 60
/ December 2022
21
http:// www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
https://www.magnanimitas.cz/ADALTA/12
0126/papers/A_21.pdf
Chaika, O., Savytska, I., Sharmanova, N., &
Zakrenytska, L. (2021b). Poly- and/or
multiculturality of future teachers in foreign
language instruction: methodological facet.
Wisdom, 4(20), 126-138.
https://doi.org/10.24234/wisdom.v20i4.583
Charles, M. (2020). Changing the Story of Urban
Violence in El Salvador: The Crónica, the
Community, and Voices from the Ganglands.
Media Journalism and Disaster Communities,
edited by Jamie Matthews and Einar Thorsen,
101-115. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Chee, W. C. (2012). Envisioned belonging:
Cultural differences and ethnicities in Hong
Kong schooling. Asian Anthropology, 11(1),
89-105.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1683478X.2012.106
00858
Downing, J. D. (2018). Social Movement Media
and Media Activism. Oxford Research
Encyclopedia of Communication, edited by
Jon Nussbaum. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Dube, S. R., & McGiboney, G. W. (2018).
Education and learning in the context of
childhood abuse, neglect and related stressor.
Child Abuse & Neglect, 75(2018), 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.029
Ganter, S. A., & Paulino, F. O. (2021). Between
Attack and Resilience: The Ongoing
Institutionalization of Independent Digital
Journalism in Brazil. Digital Journalism,
9(2), 235-254.
Halse, C. (2022). Building a collective
multicultural consciousness, Multicultural
Education Review, 14(1), 1-12. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1080/2005615X.2022.204
0144
Halse, C. (2021). Theories and theorising of
multiculturalism. Multiculturalism in
turbulenttie, 3-19. Routledge.
Harcup, T. (2020). Alternative Journalism,
Alternative Ethics? The Routledge
Companion to Local Media and Journalism,
477-485. London: Routledge.
Holland, J., & Fermor, B. (2021). The Discursive
Hegemony of Trump’s Jacksonian Populism:
Race, Class, and Gender in Constructions and
Contestations of US National Identity,
2016–2018. Politics, 41(1), 64-79.
Horsti, K., & Nikunen, K. (2013). The ethics of
hospitality in changing journalism: a
response to the rise of the anti-immigrant
movement in Finnish media publicity.
European Journal of Cultural Studies, 16(4),
489-504.
Huddleston, T., Bilgili, O., Joki, A., &
Vankova, Z. D. (2015). Migrant Integration
Policy Index 2015 – Migrant Integration
Policy Index: Finland. Mipe. Available at:
http://www.mipex.eu/finland (accessed 5
July 2019).
Kalin, R., & Berry, J. (1982). Social ecology of
ethnic attitudes in Canada. Canadian Journal
of Behavioural Science, 14, 97-109.
Kavada, A., & Poell, T. (2021). From
Counterpublics to Contentious Publicness:
Tracing the Temporal, Spatial, and Material
Articulations of Popular Protest through
Social Media. Communication Theory, 31(2),
190-208.
Koopmans, R. (2013). Multiculturalism and
Immigration: a Contested Field in Cross-
National Comparison. Annual Review of
Sociology, 39, 147-169.
Lund Bjånesøy, L. (2019). Effects of the refugee
crisis on perceptions of asylum seekers in
recipient populations. Journal of Refugee
Studies, 32(1), 219-237.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fey070
Marrun, N. A., Plachowski, T. J., & Clark, C.
(2019). A critical race theory analysis of the
‘demographic diversity’ gap in schools:
College students of color speak their truth.
Race Ethnicity and Education, 22(6),
836-857.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1579
181
McCay-Peet, L., & Quan-Haase, A. (2017).
What is social media and what questions can
social media research help us answer? The
SAGE Handbook of Social Media Research
Methods. London: SAGE, 13-26.
Moffitt, B. (2016). The global rise of populism:
Performance, political style, and
representation. Stanford University Press.
Palma, K., & Alcaíno, C. (2020). Mining the
Media: How Community Radio Breaks
through Extractivist Discourse Articulations
in a Context of Disaster and Socio-
Environmental Conflicts. Environmental
Communication, 14(6), 830-843.
Pettigrew, T., & Tropp, L. (2011). When groups
meet. London: Psychology press.
Rosenthal, D. A., Russell, J., & Thomson, G.
(2007). Social connectedness among
international students at an Australian
university. Social Indicators Research, 84(1),
71-82. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-
006-9075-1
Tumber, H., & Waisbord, S. R. (2017). The
Routledge Companion to Media and Human
Rights. London: Routledge.
Waisbord, S. (2022). Alternative
Media/Journalism and the Communicative
22
www.amazoniainvestiga.info ISSN 2322- 6307
Politics of Contestation. Digital Journalism,
10(8), 1431-1439.
https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2022.2130
385
Ward, C., & Masgoret, A-M. (2009). Attitudes
toward immigrants, immigration, and
multiculturalism in New Zealand: A Social
Psychological Analysis. International
Migration Review, 42, 222-243.
Yuen, Y. M., & Leung, C. S. (2019). Belonging
and connectedness: Identity, religiosity and
aspiration of immigrant Muslim youth in
Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of
Education, 39(4), 423-435.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2019.1671
802
Zembylas, M. (2020). The affective modes of
right-wing populism: Trump pedagogy and
lessons for democratic education. Studies in
Philosophy and Education, 39, 151-166.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-019-09691-y